Critical Thinking Research

Below are studies conducted on the Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking. Some were conducted and authored by the Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique (AKA the Center for Critical Thinking), others by third-party researchers.
Center for Critical Thinking - Sonoma State University

The Center for Critical Thinking and the Foundation for Critical Thinking — two sister educational non-profit organizations —conduct advanced research and disseminate information on critical thinking.

Together, these institutions sponsor the Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking (founded in 1981). The Center for Critical Thinking has worked with the College Board, the National Education Association, and the U.S. Department of Education to advance critical thinking. The Foundation for Critical Thinking works with colleges, universities, school districts, government departments, businesses, the military, and other organizations to facilitate the implementation of critical thinking instruction and practice focused on intellectual standards and the development of intellectual virtues.

Research in critical thinking demonstrates:

1. that, for the most part, critical thinking is still not being effectively taught at the high school, college and university levels, and yet

2. it is possible to do so.

To assess students' understanding of critical thinking, we recommend use of the International Critical Thinking Essay Test as well as the Critical Thinking Interview Profile for College Students . To assess faculty understanding of critical thinking and its importance to instruction, we recommend the Critical Thinking Interview Profile For Teachers and Faculty.

{"id":"5648","title":"","author":"","content":"Below are studies conducted on the Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking. Some were conducted and authored by the Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique (AKA the Center for Critical Thinking), others by third-party researchers. <img style=\"cursor: pointer;\" src=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/images/CFCTlogo.gif\" border=\"0\" alt=\"Center for Critical Thinking - Sonoma State University\" hspace=\"10\" vspace=\"10\" width=\"156\" height=\"150\" align=\"right\" /> \r\nThe Center for Critical Thinking and the Foundation for Critical Thinking — two sister educational non-profit organizations —conduct advanced research and disseminate information on critical thinking. \r\n Together, these institutions sponsor the Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking (founded in 1981). The Center for Critical Thinking has worked with the College Board, the National Education Association, and the U.S. Department of Education to advance critical thinking. The Foundation for Critical Thinking works with colleges, universities, school districts, government departments, businesses, the military, and other organizations to facilitate the implementation of critical thinking instruction and practice focused on intellectual standards and the development of intellectual virtues. \r\n Research in critical thinking demonstrates: \r\n<ol> </ol>\r\n 1. that, for the most part,  critical thinking is still not being effectively taught at the high school, college and university levels, and yet 2. it is possible to do so.\r\n To assess students' understanding of critical thinking, we recommend use of the <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/international-critical-thinking-test/619\" target=\"_BLANK\">International Critical Thinking Essay Test</a> as well as the <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/resources/PDF/Interview%20Questions%20for%20Students.pdf\"> Critical Thinking Interview Profile for College Students </a> . To assess faculty understanding of critical thinking and its importance to instruction, we recommend the <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/resources/PDF/Interview%20Questions%20for%20Teachers.pdf\"> Critical Thinking Interview Profile For Teachers and Faculty</a>. \r\n ","public_access":"1","public_downloads":"0","sku":"","files":[],"images":[]}

RESEARCH TITLES:

Validity and Reliability Testing of the International Critical Thinking Essay Test Form A (ICTET-A)

by Helena Hollis, Marina Rachitskiy, Leslie van der leer, & Linda Elder

Connected by Data, University of Roehampton, Utrecht University, & the Foundation for Critical Thinking - February 2024

Published in Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines
View the Study

Thinking More Wisely: Using the Socratic Method to Develop Critical Thinking Skills Amongst Healthcare Students

by Yueh-Ren Ho, Bao-Yu Chen, & Chien-Ming Li

College of Medicine at National Cheng Kung University - Tainan City, Taiwan - March 2023
View the Report

Principals' Definition and Identification of Critical Thinking in Teacher Practices

by Carmen Polka

University of Northern Colorado - Greeley, CO - 2022
View Dissertation

Investigating Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum: A Portfolio for Educational Improvement

by Rush Cosgrove

Dissertation submitted to the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England in fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)

Logic as Theory of Validation: An Essay in Philosophical Logic

by Dr. Richard Paul

Dissertation submitted to the University of California at Santa Barbara in partial fulfillment for the degree of Ph.D. in Philosophy

View Abstract - View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)

Critical Thinking in the Oxford Tutorial: A Call for an Explicit and Systematic Approach

by Rush Cosgrove

A research study focused on the extent to which the Oxford Tutorial promotes critical thinking

View Abstract - View Full Article

Critical Thinking Instruction in Selected Greater Los Angeles Area High Schools

by Paul Everett Thomas

A dissertation Submitted to the School of Education and Behavioral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree Doctor of Education (May, 1999)

View Abstract - View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)

Effect of a Model for Critical Thinking on Student Achievement in Primary Source Document Analysis

and Interpretation, Argumentative Reasoning, Critical Thinking Dispositions and History Content
in a Community College History Course

Abstract of the Study, conducted by Jenny Reed, in partial fulfillment for her dissertation (October 26, 1998)

View Abstract - View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)

The Effect of Richard Paul's Universal Elements and Standards of Reasoning on Twelfth Grade Composition

A Research Proposal Presented to the Faculty Of the School
of Education Alliant International University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Master of Arts in Education: Teaching

Study conducted by J. Stephen Scanlan, San Diego (2006)

View Abstract - View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)

Study of 38 Public Universities and 28 Private Universities

To Determine Faculty Emphasis on Critical Thinking In Instruction

Principal Researchers: Dr. Richard Paul, Dr. Linda Elder, and Dr. Ted Bartell

View Abstract - View the full study

Substantive Critical Thinking as Developed by the Foundation for Critical Thinking Proves Effective in Raising SAT and ACT Test Scores at West Side High School: Staff Development Program Utilizes Critical Thinking Instruction to Improve Student Performance on ACT and SAT Tests, and in Critical Reading, Writing and Math

Dr. John Crook, West Side High School Principal

View the Report

Teaching Critical Thinking Skills to Fourth Grade Students Identified as Gifted and Talented

by Debra Connerly

Graceland University - Cedar Rapids, Iowa - December 2006

View the Report

The Loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia: Portaging Leadership Lessons with a Critical Thinking Model

by Rob Niewoehner, Ph.D. U.S. Navy

U.S. Naval Academy - Annapolis, MD - March 2009
View the Report

Law School Academic Support Professionals' Perceptions about Development of Students' Critical THinking

by Brett A. Brosseit, Ph.D.

Ave Maria School of Law - Naples, FL - 2015
View the Dissertation

The Loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia: Portaging Leadership Lessons with a Critical Thinking Model

by Rob Niewoehner, Ph.D. U.S. Navy

U.S. Naval Academy - Annapolis, MD - March 2009
View the Report

{"id":"406","title":"RESEARCH TITLES:","author":"","content":" \r\n<hr />\r\nValidity and Reliability Testing of the International Critical Thinking Essay Test Form A (ICTET-A) \r\nby Helena Hollis, Marina Rachitskiy, Leslie van der leer, & Linda Elder   Connected by Data, University of Roehampton, Utrecht University, & the Foundation for Critical Thinking - February 2024 Published in Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5840/inquiryct20241513\" target=\"_blank\">View the Study</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nThinking More Wisely: Using the Socratic Method to Develop Critical Thinking Skills Amongst Healthcare Students \r\nby Yueh-Ren Ho, Bao-Yu Chen, & Chien-Ming Li   College of Medicine at National Cheng Kung University -  Tainan City, Taiwan - March 2023 <a href=\"https://bmcmededuc.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12909-023-04134-2\" target=\"_blank\">View the Report</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nPrincipals' Definition and Identification of Critical Thinking in Teacher Practices \r\nby Carmen Polka   University of Northern Colorado -  Greeley, CO - 2022 <a href=\"https://www.proquest.com/docview/2716507343/\" target=\"_blank\">View Dissertation</a>\r\n \r\n \r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">\r\n<div> \r\n<hr />\r\n\r\nInvestigating Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum: A Portfolio for Educational Improvement\r\n</div>\r\n</div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"> </div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">by Rush Cosgrove </div>\r\nDissertation submitted to the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England in fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"> </div>\r\n<a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/data/pages/86/6892a79ad81bdf4024ce8b751c349b635f288d8697556.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)</a>\r\n \r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">\r\n<div> \r\n<hr />\r\n\r\nLogic as Theory of Validation: An Essay in Philosophical Logic\r\n</div>\r\n</div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"> </div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">by Dr. Richard Paul </div>\r\nDissertation submitted to the University of California at Santa Barbara in partial fulfillment for the degree of Ph.D. in Philosophy\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"> </div>\r\n<a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/files/Abstract%20from%20Dr.%20Richard%20Paul%27s%20dissertation.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">View Abstract</a> - <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/files/Dissertation.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)</a>\r\n \r\n</div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">\r\n<hr />\r\n<div>\r\n<div>Critical Thinking in the Oxford Tutorial: A Call for an Explicit and Systematic Approach </div>\r\n<div> </div>\r\n</div>\r\n<div>by Rush Cosgrove</div>\r\n<div>A research study focused on the extent to which the Oxford Tutorial promotes critical thinking</div>\r\n<div> </div>\r\n<div><a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/critical-thinking-in-the-oxford-tutorial-a-call-for-an-expli/1018\" target=\"_blank\">View Abstract</a> - <a href=\"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07294360.2010.487259\" target=\"_blank\">View Full Article</a></div>\r\n<hr />\r\n</div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">Critical Thinking Instruction in Selected Greater Los Angeles Area High Schools </div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"> </div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">by Paul Everett Thomas</div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">A dissertation Submitted to the School of Education and Behavioral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements</div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">for the degree Doctor of Education (May, 1999) </div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"> </div>\r\n<a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/research/Abstract-PETHOMAS.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">View Abstract</a> - <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/files/Azusa%20Pacific%20University_opt.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nEffect of a Model for Critical Thinking on Student Achievement in Primary Source Document Analysis\r\n and Interpretation, Argumentative Reasoning, Critical Thinking Dispositions and History Content in a Community College History Course Abstract of the Study, conducted by Jenny Reed, in partial fulfillment for her dissertation (October 26, 1998) <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/research/Abstract-JREED.cfm\">View Abstract</a>  -  <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/resources/JReed-Dissertation.pdf\">View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nThe Effect of Richard Paul's Universal Elements and Standards of Reasoning on Twelfth Grade Composition\r\n A Research Proposal Presented to the Faculty Of the School of Education Alliant International University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Education: Teaching Study conducted by J. Stephen Scanlan, San Diego (2006) <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/research/Abstract-JSCANLAN.cfm\">View Abstract</a>  -   <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/resources/SScanlan.pdf\">View Full Dissertation (Adobe Acrobat PDF)</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nStudy of 38 Public Universities and 28 Private Universities\r\n To Determine Faculty Emphasis on Critical Thinking In Instruction \r\nPrincipal Researchers: Dr. Richard Paul, Dr. Linda Elder, and Dr. Ted Bartell\r\n<a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/research/Abstract-RPAUL-38public.cfm\">View Abstract</a>   -   <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/store/products/california-teacher-preparation-for-instruction-in-critical-thinking/147\">View the full study</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nSubstantive Critical Thinking as Developed by the Foundation for Critical Thinking Proves Effective in Raising SAT and ACT Test Scores at West Side High School:  Staff Development Program Utilizes Critical Thinking Instruction to Improve Student Performance on ACT and SAT Tests, and in Critical Reading, Writing and Math\r\n Dr. John Crook, West Side High School Principal <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/research/raising_SAT_and_ACT_Scores.cfm\">View the Report</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nTeaching Critical Thinking Skills to Fourth Grade Students Identified as Gifted and Talented\r\n by Debra Connerly Graceland University - Cedar Rapids, Iowa - December 2006 <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/research/Debra_Connerly_study.cfm\">View the Report</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nThe Loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia: Portaging Leadership Lessons with a Critical Thinking Model\r\nby Rob Niewoehner, Ph.D. U.S. Navy   U.S. Naval Academy -  Annapolis, MD - March 2009 <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/articles/engineering-reasoning.cfm\">View the Report</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nLaw School Academic Support Professionals' Perceptions about Development of Students' Critical THinking \r\nby Brett A. Brosseit, Ph.D.   Ave Maria School of Law - Naples, FL - 2015 <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/data/pages/57/24101cb16ee724d6172f6544c61c2be75a6688fb017ca.pdf\">View the Dissertation</a>\r\n \r\n \r\n<hr />\r\nThe Loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia: Portaging Leadership Lessons with a Critical Thinking Model\r\nby Rob Niewoehner, Ph.D. U.S. Navy   U.S. Naval Academy -  Annapolis, MD - March 2009 <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/articles/engineering-reasoning.cfm\">View the Report</a>\r\n \r\n<hr />\r\n ","public_access":"1","public_downloads":"1","sku":"","files":[],"images":[]}

Research that Cites the Paulian Approach to Critical Thinking

For some sense of the breadth of research on critical thinking, see our regularly updating annotated compendium of published research citing our approach to critical thinking.

Special thank-you to Paula Frasier for her research on this project and for her meticulousness in compiling this data base (March 12, 2013)..

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Critical Thinking Research

RESEARCH TITLES:

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